LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN LATE TALKERS: RISK FACTORS AND OUTCOMES

Abstract

Late talking is best viewed as a developmental variation rather than a fixed clinical profile, because its trajectory differs widely across children (Thal & Tobias, 1992; Rescorla et al., 1997; Weismer et al., 1994). In toddlers, late talking is commonly defined by an expressive vocabulary of fewer than 50 words and the absence of word combinations at 24 months, yet later outcomes range from full catch-up to persistent weaknesses in grammar, reading, and broader language abilities (Rescorla et al., 1997; Rescorla, 2005, 2008; Rice et al., 2008). Predictors of persistence are not limited to expressive vocabulary size; receptive language, family history of language or reading difficulty, parental phonological memory, and processing speed are also important markers (Bishop et al., 2012; Caglar-Ryeng et al., 2020; Kautto et al., 2021). Although many late talkers improve substantially by preschool age, a meaningful subset continues to show difficulties in morphosyntax, vocabulary depth, literacy, and language-based academic skills (Rescorla et al., 2000; Preston et al., 2010; Duff et al., 2015). Overall, late talking should be understood as a risk state within a broader developmental continuum rather than as a simple delay that always resolves on its own (Rescorla, 2008; Duff et al., 2015).